8 Scientific Knowledge and Its Limits Free Online FlashCards

What does scientific realism claim?

The world exists independently of our descriptions, and successful scientific theories give approximately true accounts of it.

What is the central antirealist caution about successful theories?

A theory may predict observable outcomes successfully without being literally true in all its claims, especially about unobservable entities.

What does constructive empiricism emphasize?

It treats describing observable phenomena successfully as the central aim of science, without requiring belief in every claim about the unobservable.

What is underdetermination in science?

Different theories may fit the available evidence, so that evidence alone does not always uniquely determine which theory to accept.

What criteria help scientists compare competing theories?

Scientists compare theories using accuracy, simplicity, explanatory scope, and consistency with well-supported theories. These criteria guide choice but may not settle it uniquely.

What are three meanings of scientific objectivity?

It can mean accurate description of the world, methods that limit individual bias, or results that others can critically check.

Which practices help strengthen scientific objectivity?

Transparent methods, measurement, replication, peer criticism, and testing alternative explanations help make results open to checking.

How can values enter scientific work?

Values can shape which questions are pursued, how evidence is judged, and how findings are used. The issue is whether this influence is appropriate or distorts evidence assessment.

What can scientific progress involve without guaranteeing?

It can improve measurements, extend explanations, reveal phenomena, and produce theories that work across more cases; it does not require every later theory to be wholly true.

How does the relation between Newtonian mechanics and relativity illustrate scientific progress?

Newtonian mechanics remains effective for many everyday speeds and scales, while relativity gives a more comprehensive account where Newtonian mechanics is inadequate.

What factors constrain scientific conclusions?

Conclusions are limited by available evidence, instrument reliability, assumptions built into methods, and the conditions a study can test.

Why are observations not always theory-free?

What scientists measure and how they interpret instrument outputs can depend partly on background concepts and assumptions, so evidence and theories are often assessed together.