1 Archaeological Site Discovery

Purpose and guiding principles

Archaeological site discovery combines background research with careful observation of the landscape and systematic field reconnaissance. Its goal is to locate and document potential sites while minimizing disturbance. A lack of immediately visible evidence does not establish that a place is empty.

Research the area

Before fieldwork, archaeologists define the area of interest and the questions the investigation is intended to address. They review existing information to identify known sites, understand the area's history and environment, and choose appropriate survey methods. This background research can also prevent needless repetition of earlier work.

Useful sources include previous surveys, site inventories and reports from nearby or comparable areas; historic and modern maps, aerial photographs, property records and government documents; oral histories and traditional knowledge gathered respectfully and with appropriate consultation; and information about geology, soils, hydrology, vegetation and land-use history.

Each source has limitations. A historic map may omit small or short-lived settlements, a building record does not prove archaeological remains survive, and earlier surveys may have used methods that missed certain site types. Researchers treat documentary and predictive evidence as clues to test, not confirmation.

Interpret the landscape

Landscape observations can suggest where people may have lived, traveled, worked or gathered resources. Archaeologists consider access to water, landforms, soils, natural resources, viewsheds and routes through the terrain. They also consider how erosion, sediment deposition, vegetation, construction and later land use may have buried, exposed, moved or destroyed evidence.

These observations help prioritize areas for inspection, but do not determine site location on their own. Human choices were shaped by social, cultural and historical factors as well as environmental conditions. A predictive model based on known site locations can guide survey, but its assumptions and limits should be checked in the field.

Conduct field reconnaissance

Reconnaissance is an initial inspection intended to characterize an area and identify places that merit closer study. In a pedestrian survey, surveyors walk planned routes across the study area and observe the ground surface. Routes may be parallel transects or another pattern suited to the terrain and research question. Surveyors record where they walked, what they could see and the conditions affecting visibility.

Surface evidence may include artifacts, foundations, earthworks, altered ground or other features. Vegetation patterns and landscape features may also provide clues. A lack of visible material does not prove that a site is absent: evidence may be buried, covered by vegetation, obscured by development or outside the areas inspected.

Where surface inspection is unlikely to reveal buried remains, archaeologists may use subsurface tests or non-invasive methods such as geophysical survey, if permission and research design allow. These methods have different capabilities and limitations. Results should be interpreted in context and, where appropriate, checked through field inspection. Excavation and other ground-disturbing methods are considered carefully because they alter the resource being investigated.

Plan sampling and coverage

When inspecting every part of a large area is impractical, archaeologists may use a planned sample. A systematic sample examines locations at regular intervals; a random sample selects locations by chance; and a stratified sample divides the area into meaningful zones, such as different landforms or soil types, and samples within each.

The choice of sampling approach depends on the research question, expected site types, terrain and desired level of confidence. Sampling can help estimate patterns across an area, but ground outside the sample remains uninspected. Survey design should explain how locations were selected, what was and was not covered, and how visibility, access and other conditions could bias results.

Document findings and limits

A useful reconnaissance record allows another researcher to understand and assess the work. It should identify the survey area and methods; describe routes, spacing or sample design; note visibility, weather, vegetation and ground disturbance; and map and describe potential archaeological evidence. Photographs, field notes and spatial data help preserve observations for later analysis. Record areas where no evidence was observed as well, so the survey's coverage and limits are clear.

Discovery and documentation should follow applicable permissions and professional requirements. Consultation with descendant and Indigenous communities may be essential, especially where places have cultural significance that is not apparent from surface evidence. If human remains or other sensitive discoveries are encountered, work should stop and the appropriate authorities and community representatives should be notified under applicable procedures.

River terrace example

To assess a river terrace before a proposed land-use change, an archaeologist first reviews previous survey reports, historic maps, aerial images, and information about soils and past land use. The research suggests that several parts of the terrace warrant attention. Surveyors then walk planned transects, recording ground visibility and any artifacts or features they observe.

If surface visibility is poor in a promising area, the team may recommend an authorized follow-up method. The resulting record distinguishes observed evidence from predictions and clearly identifies areas that were not inspected.

Connect the steps

The process moves from research to landscape interpretation, systematic reconnaissance, and documentation of both findings and limitations. Sampling and predictive models can make survey more efficient, but they do not replace clear documentation or field verification. Careful, minimally disturbing methods help identify potential sites while preserving them for future research and stewardship.