06 Cognition and Intelligence
Explore how cognition organizes and uses information, how people solve problems and make decisions, and what intelligence theories and tests can—and cannot—tell us.
and organized thought
refers to mental processes involved in acquiring and using information. It includes thinking, language, reasoning, problem solving, and judgment. These processes work together: and memories shape how people interpret new information, while language helps them organize and communicate ideas.
, prototypes, and
People organize knowledge into , which are mental categories for objects, events, or ideas. A is a typical or especially representative example of a concept. For example, someone whose first dog was a golden retriever may picture one when thinking of dogs.
are organized networks of related knowledge that help people interpret situations quickly. An event schema, also called a script, can guide the familiar steps of ordering food at a restaurant. make thought efficient, but they can also lead people to fill gaps with assumptions that are inaccurate.
Language and thought
Language is a rule-governed system for communicating through spoken, signed, or written symbols. Its are sound units, and its are the smallest units that carry meaning. A language’s is its vocabulary. concerns meaning, while governs how words are arranged into sentences. Word order, for example, distinguishes “The child followed the dog” from “The dog followed the child.”
Children typically progress from early vocal or signed communication to words and more complex sentences. Psychologists have considered both learning from experience and biological preparedness as contributors to language development. Language and thought influence one another: words can help people categorize and discuss experience, but language does not rigidly determine what a person can think.
Strategies and obstacles in problem solving
Problem solving begins by recognizing and defining a goal or obstacle, then selecting and evaluating possible actions. Common strategies include:
Trial and error: trying alternatives until one works.
: following a systematic sequence of steps that, when correctly applied, can produce a solution.
: using a practical mental shortcut. Heuristics save time, but do not guarantee the best answer.
To meet a deadline, for example, a student might work backward from the due date and divide a paper into smaller tasks.
Problem solving can be hindered by a : persisting with a familiar approach after it stops working. is the tendency to see an object only in terms of its usual purpose. Seeing a mug as a paperweight, for instance, means considering a use beyond drinking from it.
Decision-making and judgment biases
Decision-making is the process of choosing among alternatives. People often rely on heuristics, especially when information is limited or time is short. This can be efficient, but may produce predictable errors:
: judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. A vivid news story may make a rare event seem common.
: judging by resemblance to a category or stereotype while overlooking relevant base rates.
: relying too heavily on an initial number or piece of information when making a judgment.
: favoring evidence that supports an existing belief and discounting evidence against it.
A more deliberate choice can begin by stating the goal, listing realistic alternatives, checking relevant evidence and base rates, and asking what evidence might change one’s mind. These steps do not remove uncertainty, but can reduce the influence of an intuitive shortcut or a misleading first impression.
Different views of intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence in different but related ways. A broad description includes the ability to learn from experience, reason, solve problems, and adapt to the environment. Some theories emphasize a general ability; others distinguish among abilities. involves reasoning through unfamiliar problems, whereas draws on learned knowledge. Sternberg’s framework distinguishes analytical, creative, and practical abilities. These approaches highlight different aspects of intelligent behavior rather than providing a single complete definition.
Intelligence tests and performance
Intelligence tests sample particular cognitive tasks and do not capture every ability a person may use in life. Standardized administration and comparison with appropriate norms help make scores interpretable. On many contemporary IQ scales, scores are centered around 100. A score is an estimate based on test performance, not a complete measure of a person’s potential or worth.
Interpretation depends on the test’s reliability and validity, and on whether the test is appropriate for the person’s language, culture, and circumstances. Intellectual performance reflects both inherited influences and environmental conditions, which interact over development. Education, health, stress, opportunities to learn, and other experiences can affect how abilities develop and how a person performs on a test. A group difference in test scores, by itself, does not establish its cause or justify conclusions about individuals.
Putting the ideas together
includes thought, language, problem solving, and decision-making. and organize experience, while language provides a flexible way to represent and share it. Algorithms and heuristics can help solve problems, though mental sets and decision biases can interfere. Intelligence includes multiple abilities, and standardized tests provide limited, context-dependent estimates rather than a full account of a person’s capacities.