1 Foundations of International Relations
Explore the actors, concepts, analytical perspectives, and historical developments that shape international relations.
What examines
examines political, economic, and social interactions across borders. It considers how states and other actors pursue their interests, manage cooperation and conflict, and respond to shared problems.
States remain central, but they are not the only actors that can influence international outcomes. International organizations, businesses, civil-society groups, and individuals also have influence.
States, , and
A is a political organization governing a population and territory. A is the group currently directing that . refers to a 's claim to supreme authority within its territory and independence from other states.
The international system is often described as anarchic because no world has supreme authority over states. does not mean constant disorder: states make treaties, follow rules, and cooperate through institutions. However, enforcement is less centralized than it is within a . The United Nations provides a forum for cooperation; it is not a world .
Three
help organize explanations of international events. A single event may have causes at several levels, so relying on just one can leave important factors unexplained.
: Focuses on leaders and other decision-makers—their beliefs, perceptions, choices, and misjudgments. For example, an explanation of a diplomatic crisis might examine how a leader interpreted another 's actions.
: Also called the domestic level, this examines factors within a country, including political institutions, public opinion, economic interests, and competing groups. A 's response to a crisis may reflect legislative constraints or pressure from domestic constituencies.
: Focuses on the structure of and interactions among states and other actors. An analysis might consider alliances, the distribution of power, or the absence of a central authority.
These perspectives can complement one another. For example, a decision to enter a conflict may involve a leader's judgment at the , domestic political pressures at the , and alliance commitments or the balance of power at the .
How the system developed
long predates the modern system. Earlier political orders included empires, city-states, kingdoms, and overlapping religious and political authorities. These arrangements did not all follow the modern expectation that states exercise within clearly bounded territories.
The , which ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe, is often used as a landmark in the development of a -based international system. It is associated with the growing importance of territorial rule and relations among political authorities. It did not, however, instantly create today's system of fully sovereign, equal states. Treating it as one decisive starting point oversimplifies a gradual and contested history.
Over subsequent centuries, states developed diplomacy, military and administrative institutions, and arrangements for managing competition. European powers also expanded empires and colonial rule, connecting regions through unequal systems of political and economic control. The modern international system therefore developed through both relations among states and imperial expansion, not through a uniform spread of sovereign equality.
International organizations and a changing system
The world wars of the twentieth century prompted efforts to create international organizations that could help prevent conflict. The League of Nations was established after the First World War but did not prevent a second world war. In 1945, states founded the United Nations to provide a forum for cooperation and support international peace and security; its Charter came into force on October 24, 1945.
After 1945, rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective partners shaped international politics during the Cold War. At the same time, brought many newly independent states into international institutions and changed the composition of the system. The UN reports that more than 80 former colonies have gained independence since its creation.
Today, the international system remains organized around states, while international institutions and non- actors also shape cooperation and political outcomes.