6 Security and Strategic Relations

National and collective security

Security means protection from threats to a state’s people, territory, institutions, and ability to govern. National security is pursued through tools such as diplomacy, intelligence, economic policy, civil preparedness, and military forces. A broader view also considers risks to individuals and communities, including displacement, disease, and disruption of essential services.

Because threats can cross borders, states also rely on cooperation. Collective security uses institutions and shared rules to prevent aggression and respond to threats to peace. The UN Charter prohibits the threat or use of force against another state, while recognizing an inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs.

Collective security differs from collective defence. Collective defence is a commitment among allies to assist one another if attacked. Under NATO’s Article 5, an armed attack on one ally is treated as an attack on all, but each member decides what action it deems necessary to assist.

Deterrence and its limits

Deterrence seeks to prevent an adversary from taking an action by convincing it that the costs or risks will outweigh any expected benefit. It can work through two main approaches:

• Punishment: threaten retaliation.

• Denial: make an attack unlikely to succeed. Capable air defences, for example, may deter an attack by reducing its chance of success.

Effective deterrence depends on capability, credible resolve, and clear communication. It can fail if leaders misread one another’s intentions, doubt a threat, or believe acting quickly is safer than waiting. Deterrence may discourage aggression, but it can also create risks of arms racing, miscalculation, and escalation. It forms part of a wider posture that includes defence and resilience.

Alliances and mutual support

An alliance is an agreement among states to cooperate, often on defence. Alliances can deter an attack by increasing the potential cost to an aggressor, coordinate military planning, and provide members with consultation and support. NATO is an example of a political and military alliance whose treaty includes a mutual-assistance commitment.

Alliances involve trade-offs. Members may fear abandonment, in which partners fail to support them during a crisis, or entrapment, in which they are drawn into a conflict they would not have chosen alone. Differences in military capacity and political priorities can complicate joint decisions. Consultation, clear commitments, and shared planning help manage these tensions.

Arms control and agreements

Arms control consists of agreements and measures that limit, regulate, or make the use and spread of weapons more predictable. It is not the same as disarmament, which aims to reduce or eliminate weapons. Arms-control measures may set limits on weapon numbers or activities, provide for information exchanges and inspections, or use other forms of verification. These measures can reduce uncertainty and help states identify or deter violations.

International agreements address different weapons and risks. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty is a central nuclear-arms agreement. The Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits chemical weapons and provides for verification, including inspections by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Other instruments address weapons such as biological arms, landmines, and conventional weapons.

Agreements depend on participation, compliance, and workable verification. Mistrust or changing political conditions can weaken them.

Contemporary security challenges

Contemporary security challenges include conventional warfare, cyber operations, disinformation, terrorism, attacks on critical infrastructure, and threats to supply chains. Some activity may remain below the threshold of open armed conflict, making it difficult to attribute responsibility and choose a proportionate response. A serious cyber incident, for example, can disrupt public services while leaving uncertainty about who is responsible and how a response should be calibrated. NATO treats cyber threats and resilience as elements of broader deterrence and defence efforts, and assesses case by case whether a cyber incident amounts to an armed attack.

Pandemics, natural disasters, and climate-related pressures can strain institutions and deepen existing vulnerabilities. Climate change can act as a threat multiplier by intensifying pressures such as resource competition and food insecurity, but it does not by itself directly ignite conflict. Preparedness, resilient infrastructure, diplomacy, and international cooperation complement military defence in addressing these interconnected risks.

States pursue security through national capabilities and cooperation. Deterrence aims to prevent hostile action, alliances organize mutual support, and arms-control agreements limit or regulate weapons and reduce uncertainty. These tools can lower the risk of conflict, but none guarantees peace. Effective security also requires communication, verification, resilient societies, and responses suited to threats that cross borders and domains.