3 Congress

Congress and its two chambers

Article I of the Constitution establishes Congress as the federal government’s legislative branch and creates a bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Both chambers must agree on identical bill text before it can be presented to the president. Requiring agreement between two differently constituted chambers shapes how federal laws are made.

Representation and terms

The House has 435 voting members, apportioned among the states according to population. Representatives serve two-year terms and represent congressional districts; each state has at least one representative. After the decennial census, apportionment determines how many House seats each state receives, and states draw district boundaries for those seats. The House’s frequent elections and population-based representation are designed to make it respond relatively quickly to voters.

The Senate has 100 members, with two senators from each state regardless of population. Senators serve six-year terms, and roughly one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years. This staggered schedule provides continuity, while equal state representation gives smaller states the same number of senators as larger ones. Since ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment, voters have elected senators directly.

Chamber rules and committees

The chambers have different procedures and organization. House party leaders and the Speaker help shape the agenda, and House rules often limit debate and amendments. The smaller Senate generally allows more extended debate under its rules.

Standing committees and subcommittees in both chambers focus on particular policy areas. They review proposed legislation, hold hearings, and conduct oversight. House and Senate procedures therefore shape how proposals are considered, while committees focus attention on specific areas of policy.

Ways of representing constituents

Members may represent constituents in different ways. A delegate emphasizes constituents’ stated preferences, while a trustee uses independent judgment about the public interest. A politico shifts between these approaches depending on the issue. Members may also seek to represent a constituency’s experiences or interests, not only its expressed policy preferences.

Elections and district boundaries

House members are elected every two years, while senators serve six-year terms on a staggered election schedule. States administer congressional elections, subject to constitutional limits and federal laws. The Constitution also gives Congress authority to make or alter many state rules governing the times, places, and manner of congressional elections.

Elections generally include primary elections, in which parties choose nominees, and general elections, in which voters choose among candidates. For House races, district boundaries determine which voters elect each representative. Population shifts can change a state’s number of House seats after a census: reapportionment redistributes seats among states, and redistricting redraws district boundaries. These changes can affect who competes in elections and whose interests are grouped together.

How a bill moves through Congress

A lawmaking proposal may begin with an idea from a constituent, an interest group, an executive-branch official, or a member of Congress. A member formally introduces a bill, which is referred to one or more committees. A committee may hold hearings, gather information, revise the proposal in a markup, and vote on whether to report it to the full chamber. Many proposals do not advance beyond committee.

If a bill reaches the floor, members debate it and may amend it under that chamber’s rules. If the chamber passes the bill, it goes to the other chamber, where the process begins again. Both chambers must pass identical text. If their versions differ, members may negotiate a compromise, for example through a conference committee, and both chambers must approve the final version.

Presidential review and distinct powers

After both chambers approve identical text, the bill goes to the president, who may sign it or veto it. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds vote in each chamber.

The Constitution gives each chamber some distinct powers. Revenue-raising bills must originate in the House, while the Senate has a role in approving treaties and confirming many presidential nominees. These differences are part of the system of checks and balances, but ordinary legislation still requires agreement from both chambers.

Congressional oversight

Congress monitors how the executive branch administers laws and spends public money. Committees can hold hearings, request information, question officials, and investigate programs or conduct. Congress also uses legislation, appropriations, and support organizations such as the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to assess whether federal programs follow the law and achieve their goals.

Oversight can identify problems, inform future legislation, and hold agencies accountable. It can also be contentious: legislators may disagree about what to investigate, what information should be disclosed, or whether an agency’s actions are lawful. This monitoring is a continuing part of governing, not just a step in passing a bill.

• standing committee