7 Elections and Voting

Election administration

Elections connect citizens to government by allowing them to choose representatives and influence public policy. The rules governing elections shape who can vote, how votes are counted, how candidates campaign, and how ballots translate into political power.

The Constitution divides election responsibilities between states and the federal government. States administer most elections and set many practical rules, including registration procedures, polling locations, ballot formats, and counting processes. Under the Elections Clause, Congress may regulate or override state rules for congressional elections. Federal laws also protect voting rights and establish requirements for federal elections, so administration is decentralized and rules can vary by state.

Election types and voting systems

Elections generally include primaries or other nominating contests, where parties select candidates, and general elections, where voters choose among candidates for office. States use different primary methods. Closed primaries are limited to registered party members, while open primaries allow broader participation.

House elections occur every two years. Senators serve six-year terms, and Senate elections are staggered so that roughly one-third of Senate seats are contested every two years.

Most U.S. legislative elections use single-member districts: each district elects one representative. Under the plurality rule, the candidate with the most votes usually wins, even without a majority. This can favor a two-party system: voters may avoid a minor-party candidate if they believe that candidate cannot win and might draw votes from their preferred major-party candidate.

Voting rights and participation

Constitutional amendments and federal law protect voting rights while leaving states significant responsibility for election procedures. The Fifteenth Amendment bars denying the vote on account of race, and the Nineteenth Amendment bars denial on account of sex. The Twenty-Fourth Amendment prohibits poll taxes in federal elections, and the Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered the voting age to 18. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits voting practices that deny or abridge the right to vote on account of race or membership in a language-minority group.

States determine many voter qualifications and procedures, subject to constitutional and federal-law limits. In most states, eligible voters must register before voting; North Dakota is an exception. Registration deadlines and options—including early, absentee, and mail voting—differ by state, so voters should check official state or local election guidance.

Voter turnout is the share of eligible or voting-age people who cast ballots, and it varies across elections and groups. Age, education, income, ease of registration, competitiveness, campaign contact, and how important voters consider an election can all affect participation. These are broad patterns, not rules that predict how any individual will vote. The Census Bureau reported that 65.3% of the citizen voting-age population voted in the 2024 presidential election; turnout differed across education groups.

Voting behavior and campaigns

Voting behavior reflects party identification, views on issues, evaluations of candidates and the incumbent’s performance, and social experiences. Some voters primarily support the party they identify with; others choose based on a particular issue or candidate.

Campaigns nominate candidates, communicate positions, raise funds, organize volunteers, advertise, and contact voters. They may use rallies, debates, mail, television, social media, and door-to-door or phone outreach. Campaigns often direct resources toward persuadable voters and groups whose turnout could affect the result. They try to persuade undecided voters, reinforce supporters’ preferences, and encourage supporters to vote.

Parties coordinate campaign efforts, offer voters a recognizable set of candidates and policy positions, and help organize government after elections.

Campaign finance

Federal campaign-finance law regulates fundraising and spending for federal offices. Candidates must use authorized campaign committees and report campaign finances. Contribution limits apply to contributions made directly to candidates, while political committees that make only independent expenditures may accept unlimited contributions under federal rules.

An independent expenditure is made without coordination with a candidate or campaign; coordinated spending is treated differently under campaign-finance law. Legal details can change, so current rules should be checked with the Federal Election Commission.

The Electoral College

Presidential elections use the Electoral College rather than a single nationwide popular vote. Each state receives electors equal to its members of Congress, and the District of Columbia receives three. There are 538 electoral votes, and a candidate needs a majority—currently 270—to win. Most states award all their electoral votes to the statewide popular-vote winner. Maine and Nebraska award some electors by congressional district as well as statewide results. Consequently, a candidate can win the presidency without winning the national popular vote.

A candidate who narrowly wins several states may gain more electoral votes than a rival who wins larger popular-vote margins in fewer states. The system therefore encourages campaigns to pay particular attention to competitive states. If no candidate receives an electoral-vote majority, the House of Representatives chooses the president, with each state delegation casting one vote.

How rules shape electoral outcomes

Election rules influence both participation and representation. Registration deadlines, identification requirements, voting options, district boundaries, ballot access rules, and vote-counting procedures can affect how easy it is to vote and which candidates can compete.

District boundaries affect representation. Drawing districts to advantage a party or group is called gerrymandering. The principle of equal population in congressional districts helps ensure that votes have comparable weight, while federal and state laws impose other constraints on districting.

In a winner-take-all district, a candidate can win the seat with a plurality while votes for other candidates produce no representation in that district. Presidential winner-take-all state rules similarly concentrate electoral votes on the statewide winner. These rules can encourage broad coalitions, but they may also leave smaller parties or geographically dispersed groups with less representation.

• general election

• single-member district