17 Early Modern Europe and Political Change

A period of uneven change

Early modern Europe, roughly from the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries, experienced major changes in religion, government, art, and the study of nature. These developments did not erase medieval traditions: they unfolded alongside older institutions and varied greatly across regions. The Renaissance began earlier in Italy and spread across Europe, while religious reform, political conflict, and new ways of representing and investigating the world reshaped the continent.

Renaissance learning and humanism

The Renaissance, meaning “rebirth,” drew inspiration from the literature, philosophy, and art of ancient Greece and Rome. It first flourished in Italian cities such as Florence, where trade and banking supported wealthy patrons, including the Medici family.

Scholars called humanists studied classical languages and texts, emphasizing history, rhetoric, ethics, and human potential. Renaissance humanism did not simply reject Christianity: many scholars used classical learning to better understand Christian texts and society.

The printing press helped texts and images circulate more widely, supporting the spread of Renaissance ideas beyond Italy.

Artistic innovation

Artists developed techniques for suggesting realistic space and volume. Linear perspective made parallel lines appear to converge at a point, creating the illusion of depth on a flat surface. Artists also studied anatomy, light, and the natural world.

Leonardo da Vinci combined art with scientific observation; Michelangelo created monumental sculpture and painting; and Raphael became known for balanced compositions. Portraits became more prominent, reflecting interest in individual identity as well as the status of patrons.

Religious reform and division

In 1517, the German monk and scholar Martin Luther challenged the sale of indulgences and other church practices. His arguments spread rapidly through printed pamphlets. Luther and other reformers questioned papal authority and emphasized the Bible and faith as sources of religious authority.

The Reformation did not produce a single church. Lutheranism spread through parts of central and northern Europe; John Calvin’s Reformed tradition gained followers in Switzerland, the Netherlands, Scotland, and France; and England established a separate church under royal authority in the sixteenth century.

The Catholic Church responded through internal reform and renewed teaching, particularly at the Council of Trent (1545–1563). The Reformation and Catholic reform reshaped worship and education, while also intensifying political rivalries and persecution.

Religious settlements and conflict

The 1555 Peace of Augsburg allowed rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism for their territories; it did not establish broad religious freedom. Conflict continued and culminated in the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). The 1648 Peace of Westphalia helped end the war and recognized a wider range of Christian confessions within the Empire.

Monarchies and the Dutch Republic

European rulers sought more reliable control over territory, taxation, armies, and religious policy. Monarchs in states such as France and Spain strengthened royal administrations, but their power was not unlimited: nobles, representative bodies, local laws, and financial constraints continued to matter. Absolutism describes an ideal of concentrated monarchical authority, not a uniform condition across Europe.

Other political arrangements developed alongside strong monarchies. The Dutch provinces formed a republic after their revolt against Spanish rule, with government relying on provincial authorities and representatives of the provinces.

Civil war and parliamentary change in England

In England, disputes over taxation, religion, and royal authority contributed to civil wars in the 1640s. Charles I was executed in 1649, and England briefly became a commonwealth before the monarchy was restored in 1660.

The 1688–1689 Revolution and the English Bill of Rights strengthened Parliament’s role and limited the monarch’s ability to govern without parliamentary consent. These developments show that early modern Europe did not follow a single political path: republics, powerful monarchies, and increasingly limited monarchies coexisted.

Mannerism and Baroque art

Renaissance art continued to evolve in the sixteenth century. Mannerism, associated with artists such as El Greco, often used elongated figures, unusual proportions, and expressive color.

In the seventeenth century, Baroque art and architecture favored movement, dramatic light, rich detail, and strong emotional effects. Caravaggio’s sharply contrasted light and lifelike figures made religious scenes feel immediate. Baroque churches and public spaces could also communicate the authority and devotion of their patrons.

New approaches to studying nature

Intellectual change extended beyond the arts. Scholars increasingly used observation, mathematics, and debate to study nature. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published a model placing the Sun, rather than Earth, at the center of the planetary system.

Later astronomers, including Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton, developed new explanations of the heavens and motion. The Scientific Revolution did not replace older knowledge all at once; it changed how natural claims could be tested and argued.

How the changes fit together

The Renaissance revived classical learning and fostered new artistic approaches, while the printing press helped ideas travel. The Reformation divided Western Christianity and intensified struggles over religious and political authority. European states responded in different ways: some strengthened monarchies, while the Dutch Republic and England’s parliamentary settlement demonstrated alternative political structures. Renaissance humanism, Baroque art, and new scientific inquiry were part of profound but uneven change.